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Dai Yue

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Dai Yue (disambiguation)

Dai Yuan, also known officially as the Dai Yuan (Zhuang: 大南國的合; romanization: X'əsr Umbáèk), is a sovereign country located in Southeast Asia. It is situated on the eastern coast of the Indochina Peninsula. With an estimated 94.6 million habitants as of 2016, it is the world's 15th-most populous country, and the ninth-most populous Asian country. Vietnam shares a land border with China to the north, as well as Laos and Cambodia to the west; and a maritime border with Thailand across the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest as well as the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia across the South China to to the east. Since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, Vietnam's capital has been its capital, although its largest city is Ho Chi Minh City.

Dai Yue, also known officially as the Empire of Dai Yue (Zhuang: 大南國的合; romanization: X'əsr Umbáèk), is a sovereign country located in East Asia. It occupies the southern half of the Chinese subcontinent. Dai Yue shares a land border with the Guang Empire to the north; Tibet, India and Burma to the east; and Luang Prabang and Champa to the south. It also shares maritime borders with Indonesia to the south, the Philippines to the southeast, and Japan to the east. The country's capital is Nam Kinh, situated upon the Yangtze River, although its largest city is Than Quyen, situated by the Pearl Delta. Dai Yuan exercises jurisdiction over 47 departments. With of 809.745 million inhabitants as of 2016, Dai Yue is the world's 3rd-most populous country, behind the Guang Empire and India. 74.2% of its population live in cities, while the remaining 25.8% live in the countryside. The country is home to six megalopolises, such as the Pearl River and Yangtze River Deltas, the world's two largest metropolitan areas respectively.

Following the foundation of the Liangzhu,

Tai-Kradai peoples first inhabited what is now known as Dai Yue, eventually founding various city-states along the Yangtze river at the early 2nd millennium BCE. The unification of these city0staes

Australoid and Austronesian peoples first inhabited Vietnam, who first established the Âu Lạc Kingdom around 300 BCE. The arrival of the first Chinese peoples coincided with Nanyue expansion to the region, which saw the first wave of Vietnamese sinification. For a millennium, Vietnam became a protectorate under multiple Chinese dynasties, interrupted by the Kingdom of Van Xuan between 544 to 602. The Anarchy of the Warlords led to the established of Đại Cồ Việt, marking another millennium-long period of Vietnamese independence save for the brief Ming occupation of Vietnam between 1407 and 1428. During the 19th century, Vietnam was colonized by France, followed by a brief Japanese occupation during World War II. The aftermath of the First Indochina War, which ended in 1954, left Vietnam divided between North and South Vietnam. The conflict between the two culminated into the Vietnam War, which resulted into the unification of Vietnam under the communist north.

Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished and politically isolated. In 1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) initiated a series of economic and political reforms that began Vietnam's path toward integration into the world economy.[11] By 2010, it had established diplomatic relations with 178 countries. Since 2000, Vietnam's economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world,[11] and in 2011, it had the highest Global Growth Generators Index among 11 major economies.[12] Its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 2007. Vietnam is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie.

Beginning in 1986, Vietnam initiated the Đổi Mới reforms that converted it into a socialist-oriented market economy and marked the end of its political isolation. By 2010, Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 178 countries. Since 2000, Vietnam's economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world, and in 2011, it had the highest Global Growth Generators Index among 11 major economies. Its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2007. Vietnam is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (International Organization of the Francophone).

Etymology

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Main article: Names of Vietnam

The name Việt Nam (Vietnamese pronunciation: [viə̀t naːm]) is a variation of Nam Việt (Chinese: 南越; pinyin: Nányuè; literally "Southern Việt"), a name that can be traced back to the Triệu dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a shortened form of Bách Việt (Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè), a group of people then living in southern China and Vietnam. The form "Vietnam" (越南) is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình. The name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (later become Emperor Gia Long) established the Nguyễn dynasty, and in the second year, he asked the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty to confer him the title 'King of Nam Viet/Nanyue (南越 in Chinese) after seizing Annam's ruling power but the latter refused since the name was related to Zhao Tuo's Nanyue which includes the regions of Guangxi and Guangdong in southern China by which the Qing Emperor decide to call the area as "Viet Nam" instead. Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long. It was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châu's History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ). The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the imperial government in Huế and the Việt Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam.

History

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Main article: History of Vietnam

Prehistory

Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age. Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam.[20] The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, and include isolated tooth fragments from Tham Om and Hang Hum.[21][22][23] Teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can,[24] and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu,[25][26] Lang Gao[27][28] and Lang Cuom.[29] By about 1,000 BC, the development of wet-rice cultivation and bronze casting in the Ma River and Red River floodplains led to the flourishing of the Đông Sơn culture,[30][31] notable for its elaborate bronze Đông Sơn drums.[32][33][34] At this time, the early Vietnamese kingdoms of Văn Lang and Âu Lạc appeared, and the culture's influence spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, including Maritime Southeast Asia, throughout the first millennium BC

Antiquity (500 BCE-1600)

Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE, allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. These kingdoms (little more than collections of villages subservient to petty chieftains) evolved with their own ethnic and tribal religions. Java's hot and even temperature, abundant rain and volcanic soil, was perfect for wet rice cultivation. Such agriculture required a well-organized society in contrast to dry-field rice which is a much simpler form of cultivation that doesn't require an elaborate social structure to support it.

Vietnam is involved in the Vedas. According to the Ramyana, India's earliest epic, Rama's army dispatched soldiers to the island of Yawadvipa, now known as Java, in search of Sita, Rama's consort and a goddess that denotes good character. According to the Tamil text Manimekalai, Java had a kingdom with a capital called 'Nagapuram'. By the 1st century CE, Hinduism is thought to have spread to the islands wherein a Hindu statue of Ganesha was found. By the 5th century, stone inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were found in Java and Borneo. The Tarumanagara was one Hindu kingdom establish in 358, which helped spread Hinduism all across the archipelago.

Beginning in 650, the Srivijaya Empire was established around present-day Palembang. For much of the 7th century, the Srivijaya grew to become one of the largest Vietnamese states by population, eclipsing even some of the few Javan kingdoms, and becoming a major regional power by dominating much of Sumatra island. Initially, the Srivijaya Empire adapted an aggressive foreign policy with surrounding states However, by the 8th century, as it expanded into much of the Sumatra island, the empire began to simply admit neighbouring kingdoms into its loose tributary system. Under the span of three emperors, much of the Greater Sunda archipelago was under the tributary system of the Srivijaya. Benefitting from the monopoly of trade from the Straits of Malacca and from the islands' generally strategic position, art, education, philosophy and other forms of learning flowered in Srivijaya, including large terracotta images, larger stone sculptures and architectural monuments.

Beginning in the late-10th century, Srivijaya entered into a period of intense rivalry with the Chola Empire in India. Sometime during this period, the Cholas initiated a raid against Srivijaya that left the latter unprepared. An invasion from Chola occurred later, with the Chola fleet attacking from the Strait of Sunda. The Cholas then raided the capital of the Srivijaya Empire, Palembang. Afterwards, ports suffered from successive attacks. The war ended with Chola victory and the loss of Srivijayan maritime monopoly on the region. Tamil guilds' influence over the region increased as a result of the war. Two centuries later, the Javanese kingdom of Singhasari fully conquered the empire.

The Majapahit Empire arose in 1293 after a duke usurped the Singhasari throne and declared the establishment of the Majapahit Empire with the aid of the Mongol Empire. By the late 14th century, much of the Malay archipelago was conquered by the Majapahit, either through direct rule or through a tributary system. Majapahit society developed a high degree of sophistication in both commercial and artistic activities. Its capital was inhabited by a cosmopolitan population among whom literature and art flourished. It had a thriving cash economy, based on rice cultivation and trade, which supported a wide variety of industries and professions.

Following Hayam Wuruk's death in 1389, Majapahit power entered a period of decline due to conflicts over succession. Hayam Wuruk was succeeded by the crown princess Kusumawardhani, who married a relative, Prince Wikramawardhana. Hayam Wuruk also had a son from a previous marriage, Crown Prince Wirabhumi, who also claimed the throne. A civil war, called Paregreg, is thought to have occurred from 1405 to 1406,[5] in which Wikramawardhana was victorious and Wirabhumi was caught and decapitated. Wikramawardhana ruled until 1426 and was succeeded by his daughter Suhita, who ruled from 1426 to 1447. She was the second child of Wikramawarddhana by a concubine who was the daughter of Wirabhumi.

Following Hayam Wuruk's death in 1389, the empire entered into a period of decline due to succession crises. A civil war, called Paregreg, is thought to have occurred from 1405 to 1406, and ended with the coronation of Wikramawardhana as emperor. In 1453, the Majapahit empire experienced a period without a king, until 1456 in which Girisawardhana came into power and was succeeded by Singhawikramawardhana. In 1468, a prince successfully initiated a rebellion and became king. The decline was reversed during the reign of Kertabumi, who successfully repelled the Muslim Demak Sultanate and began a process of centralizing its mandela. In the 16th century, the Majapahit was involved in a rivalry against Portugal and the Netherlands over control of the Moluccas islands. After the Fourth Moluccan Wars in 1593, the Majapahit rapidly collapsed, and new states such as the Ternate and Banjar rajahnates declared independence.

Colonial period (1600-1945)

During the early 17th century, Vietnam was experiencing a large influx of Chinese migrants, a result of the Qing incursions in the Ming. In 1645, the first major Chinese state was established by Prince Fu, crowned emperor of the Southern Ming, around Pontianak. It initially experienced a massive population boom due to Chinese immigration. During the 17th century, the Southern Ming annexed the nearby Banjar Kingdom and much of southern Borneo, before invading Sumatra and Java. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Southern Ming controlled most Vietnamese territory outside of European control, and served as a rival to both Portugal and the Netherlands in regional politics.
The Battle of Java (1768), fought between itself and the Netherlands, was a decisive Southern Ming victory which resulted in the bankruptcy of the Dutch Vietnam Company and eventually, its disbandment in 1791. A naval blockade by the British during the Napoleonic Wars severely weakened the Southern Ming to the point that states far from its capital, such as Makassar and Banten, declared independence, though they themselves eventually became a part of its mandala. The 19th century was therefore marked with the Dutch consolidating their colony within Vietnam to prevent intervention from other European powers. Thus, various wars were fought between itself and the Dutch. The long and costly Third Southern Ming-Dutch War resulted into the loss of the islands' biggest power in 1892. The Netherlands finally colonized into Vietnam' current boundaries in 1920, with the addition of Western New Guinea.

Under Queen Willhelmina, the Netherlands introduced the Dutch Ethical Policy in 1901, improving living conditions, expanding education to natives and preparing the archipelago for self-government under Dutch control. However, the policy contributed to the Vietnamese National Awakening and the rise of various independence movements which the Dutch actively suppressed. In World War II, Japan invaded and occupied Vietnam, effectively ending Dutch rule. Famine and forced labour were common during the occupation, and war crimes were committed in areas that were deemed important for the Japanese war effort. The occupation proved to be fundamental for Vietnamese indpendence, as the Japanese encouraged Vietnamese nationalism, promoted nationalist figure such as Sukarno, and provided weapons and military training.

Only two days after the Japanese surrender, Vietnam proclaimed independence on 17 August 1945, led by figures such as members of the former Southern Ming dynasty as well as Sukarno. The Netherlands tried to re-establish rule, resulting into the Vietnamese National Revolution. Largely due to international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Vietnamese independence in 1949 with the exception of New Guinea, which was later incorporated in 1962.

Modern period (1945-present)

In 1950, Sukarno effectively politically isolated the royal family, although he established an absolute monarchy in their name. The rest of the 50s were marked with a shift from democracy to authoritarianism. He maintained power base by juggling the opposing interests of the military and the Communist Party. An attempted coup by the Communist Party in 30 September 1965 was countered by the army. This coup led to a purge that targeted communists, whites and alleged leftists, during which the Communist Party was blamed for the coup and effectively annihilated. General Suharto, head of the army, outmaneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno and was formally appointed prime minister by the king in March 1968. His regime, often called the New Order, was supported by the United States and received substantial foreign direct investment, a cause for much economic growth within the next three decades. However, this administration was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.

Vietnam' economic growth was halted during the 1997 Asian financial crisis. The financial crisis severely impacted Vietnam; it weakened its currency from 2,500 MNP against the USD, to 10,000 MNP. It also triggered mass protests across the country, forcing Suharto to resign on 21 May 1998. In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Vietnam after a 25-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation. The monarchy intervened in 1999 to introduce democratic processes that include further regional autonomy, as well as the first direct prime minister election in 2004. Despite instability, social unrest, corrutpion and terrorism, the Vietnamese economy has performed strongly. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, which killed an estimated 167,000 people, played a part in Aceh's independence movement, Vietnam' sole Muslim-majority province.

Government

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Vietnam is an absolute monarchy headed by Emperor Gaowen. Its early history is rooted as far back as 1206, when the Ming dynasty was established. In 1644, the Prince of Fu ascended into the Ming throne and in 1645, invaded Borneo and established his capital in Banjarmasin. The Ming dynasty finally fell in the 19th century, until it was re-instated in 1945. Initially, the Ming dynasty as an institution was the most politically powerful in Vietnam until it was eventually outmaneuvered by Prime Minister Sukarno. The Ming dynasty exercised power by democratizing Vietnam, although it remains constitutionally unlimited. Today, the monarch traditionally plays a reclusive role within politics, and has conventionally limited its powers to those similar to constitutional monarchies around the world. For example, it serves as a symbol of the nation, and signs bills into law.

Vietnam is run under a parliamentary system with a Westminster system. Executive power is vested in the Privy Council of Vietnam, the country's equivalent to a cabinet, who are members of the legislative branch themselves. The Imperial Court is Vietnam' national bicameral legislature. Overall, its powers and responsibilities include supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policies. It is divided between the Mandarin Estate and the Common Estate. The Mandarin Estate, the upper house, is made out of provincial governors, and is responsible for passing legislation before Imperial Assent and monitoring the executive branch. The Common Estate, the lower house, is responsible for drafting bills, and its members are made of popularly elected members.

Most civil disputes appear before the State Court; appeals are heard before the High Court. The Supreme Court of Vietnam is the country's highest court, and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; the State Administrative Court to hear administrative law cases against the government; the Constitutional Court to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and the Judicial Commission to monitor the performance of judges.

Foreign relations
Administrative divisions
Vietnam consists of 34 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own legislature and an elected governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by Mandarins and mayors (walikota) respectively and also their own legislature. These are further subdivided into districts (kecamatan or distrik in Papua), and again into administrative villages (either desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari in West Sumatra, or gampong in Aceh). This number has evolved over time, the most recent change being the split of North Kalimantan from East Kalimantan in October 2012.

The village is the lowest level of government administration. Furthermore, it is divided into several community groups (rukun warga, RW) which are further divided into neighbourhood groups (rukun tetangga, RT). In Java, the village (desa) is divided further into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), these units are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles matters of a village or neighbourhood through an elected village chief (lurah or kepala desa).

Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. Aceh has the right to create certain elements of an independent legal system and several regional parties participate only in elections within the province. In 2003, it instituted a form of sharia. Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting the Republicans during the National Revolution and its willingness to join Indonesia as a republic. Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was split into Papua and West Papua in February 2003.

Domestic policies and issues

Environment

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Indonesia's large and growing population, and rapid industrialisation, present serious environmental issues. They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[101] Issues include the destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal deforestation and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and industrial development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[101] These issues contribute to Indonesia's poor ranking in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index, at 133 out of 180 countries. The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance is among the lowest in the Asia-Pacific region.[102]

Much of Indonesia's deforestation is caused by the expansion of palm oil industry that requires land reallocation as well as changes to the natural ecosystems.[103] Expansions can generate wealth for local communities, but it can also degrade ecosystems and cause social problems.[104] This makes Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.[105] Such activity also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 as critically endangered, including the Bali starling,[106] Sumatran orangutan,[107] and Javan rhinoceros.[108]

Geography
Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N, and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It is the largest archipelagic country in the world, extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south.[80] According to a geospatial survey conducted between 2007 and 2010 by the National Mapping Agency, Indonesia has 13,466 islands,[81] scattered over both sides of the equator, and with about 6,000 of them are inhabited.[11] The largest are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor, and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Palau, and Australia.

At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km2 (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest rivers are in Kalimantan and New Guinea, and include Kapuas, Barito, Mamberamo, Sepik and Mahakam; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.[82]

Tectonically, Indonesia is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.[85] It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian plate where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi.[86] Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active.[87] Between 1972 and 1991, 29 volcanic eruptions were recorded, mostly on Java. While volcanic ash has resulted in fertile soils (a factor in historically sustaining high population densities of Java and Bali),[88] it makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas.[89]

A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate, and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still debated.[90] The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history. The former resulted in 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash which spread and blanketed Southeast Asia, plunging it into darkness for a week, and made much of Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816.[91] The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history, and resulted in 36,000 deaths that are attributed to the eruption itself and the tsunamis it created. Significant additional effects were also felt around the world years after the eruption.[92] Recent major disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake.

Climate
Lying along the equator, Indonesia's climate tends to be relatively even year-round.[83] Indonesia has two seasons—a wet season and a dry season—with no extremes of summer or winter.[84] For most of Indonesia, the dry season falls between April and October with the wet season between November and March.[84] Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical, dominated by the tropical rainforest climate found in every major island of Indonesia, followed by the tropical monsoon climate that predominantly lies along Java's coastal north, Sulawesi's coastal south and east, and Bali, and finally the tropical Savanna climate, found in isolated locations of Central Java, lowland East Java, coastal southern Papua and smaller islands to the east of Lombok. However, cooler climate types do exist in mountainous regions of Indonesia 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) prevail in highland areas with fairly uniform precipitation year-round, adjacent to rainforest climates, while the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) exist in highland areas with a more pronounced dry season, adjacent to tropical monsoon and savanna climates.

Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra, experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season, and floods in the wet. Rainfall is plentiful, particularly in West Sumatra, West Kalimantan, West Java, and Papua. Parts of Sulawesi and some islands closer to Australia, such as Sumba is drier. The almost uniformly warm waters that make up 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain fairly constant. The coastal plains averaging 28 °C (82.4 °F), the inland and mountain areas averaging 26 °C (78.8 °F), and the higher mountain regions, 23 °C (73.4 °F). The area's relative humidity ranges between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in June through October and from the northwest in November through March. Typhoons and large scale storms pose little hazard to mariners in Indonesian waters; the major danger comes from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits.

Biodiversity
Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support a high level of biodiversity.[14] Its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.[93] The islands of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia, and have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the Sumatran tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, Asian elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku – having been long separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna.[94] Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.[95] Forests cover approximately 70% of the country.[96] However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture.

Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.[97] Indonesia's 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas. The country has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.[19] Indonesia is one of Coral Triangle countries with the world's greatest diversity of coral reef fish with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only.[98]

The British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described a dividing line between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.[99] Known as the Wallace Line, it runs roughly north–south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian – moving east from Lombok they are increasingly Australian until the tipping point at the Weber Line. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.[100] The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.[99]

Economy

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Vietnam has the largest economy in Southeast Asia, with a nominal GDP of $534.19 billion, the 24th-largest globally, and a PPP GDP of $1.942 trillion, the fifteenth-largest globally. However, in terms of nominal per capita income, it is the fifth-largest within the region behind Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia and Thailand, and the 114th worldwide. Its per capita in PPP is $5,725, while its nominal per capita income is $2,049. Vietnam is a member of the G80 country. The debt to ratio GDP is 32.2%. The agricultural sector is the largest sector of the Vietnamese economy, and accounts for 57.9% of the GDP, followed by the industrial sector, which accounts for 42.9%, and agriculture, which accounts for 9.9%.

Prior to the 1997 financial crisis, the Vietnamese economy was rapidly industrializing and was one of the fastest-growing in the globe. However, the financial crisis allowed the agriculture sector to overtake the industrial and service sectors as the country's economy declined greatly both in nominal GDP and in its per capita income. The economy contracted by 13.1%, and government mismanagement established further trade barriers, causing inflation which reached 102%. Oil and agriculture became the primary sources of the revenue. After the 2008 financial crisis, there was a slow and gradual process of industrialization and urbanization, with the government beginning to diversify sources of revenue away from oil. As of 2018, the economy has been growing at a 6% rate, and is accompanied by relatively steady inflation. As of 2017, 55.12% of the population lived below the poverty line, and the official open unemployment rate was 22%.
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Vietnam ran a trade surplus as of 2015, with total exports and imports of $122 billion and $102 billion respectively. Its main exports are led by palm oil and coal briquettes, with an expanding jewelry in jewellery, cars, vehicle parts, rubber and copper. Imports are composed of both refined and crude petroleum, as well as telephones, computers, vehicle parts, and wheat. Vietnam' main export markets are China (12%), the United States (11%), Japan (11%), Singapore (8%) and India (7.2%), while its largest import partners are China (23%), Singapore (11%), Japan (9%), Thailand (6%), and Malaysia (5%).

Agriculture and natural resources
Agriculture is Vietnam' largest economic sector, contributing 57.9% to its GDP. Currently, there are around 30% of land area that is used for agriculture, and employed 67% of the total work force of Indonesia (73,597,245 Indonesians). At present, Vietnam is the world's largest producer of palm oil, cloves, and cinnamon; the second largest producer of nutmeg, natural rubber, cassava, vanilla and coconut oil; the third largest producer of rice and cocoa; the fourth largest producer of coffee; the fifth largest producer of tobacco; and the sixth largest producer of tea. Other agriculture commodities include cassava (tapioca), copa, poultry, beef, pork and eggs. Being the world's biggest producer and consumer of this commodity, palm oil is particularly important to the economy, providing about half of the world's supply. Plantations in the country stretch across seven million hectares as of 2009, with a replanting plan set for an addition 4.7 million to boost productivity in 2017.

Poor environmental responsibility of Vietnam and its palm oil plantation has lead to massive haze problems annually. Since 1997, it has been struggling to contain forest fires, especially on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. This occurs mainly during the dry season, and is largely due to illegal agricultural fires due to slash and burn practices. Among the most severe hazes occurred in 1997, while dense hazes occurred again in 2005, 2006, 2009, 2013 and 2015; the latter causing respiratory illnesses and road accidents due to poor visibility. Deforestation is also another major problem within Vietnam, done mainly to convert natural rainforest into agricultural lands, especially palm oil plantations. Deforestation has pushed endangered species like rhinos, elephants, tigers and orangutans to the verge of extinction.

In 1999, petroleum output averaged 1.5 million barrels or 240,000 cubic meters per day, and contributed to approximately 9% of the GDP. It is thought htat, due to lack of investment in oil production equipment and the aging oil fields, that Vietnam' oil production has decreased since then, around 5.4% per year and leading to a $1.2 billion oil deficit. Today, the country is a net oil importer. The Vietnamese government owns all petroleum and mineral rights. Oil and gas contractors are required to finance their own respective contract areas, such as exploration and production.

Mineral production is centred on bauxite, silver and tin; and is expanding into copper, nickel, goal and coal. Total coal production reached 74 million metric tons in 1999, and in 2011, production was 353 million. As of 2014, Vietnam is the third-largest producer with a total production of 458 Mt and exporting 382 Mt. Vietnam is also the world's largest producer of tin.

Manufacturing industry
As of 2010, the country sold 7.6 million motorcycles, produced with 100% locally made components. Honda led the market with a 50.9% market share, followed by Yamaha with its 41.3% share of the market. The retail car sales total as of 2011 was 888,335 units, a 19.2% increase from last year. Toyota dominated the domestic car market, followed by Daihatsu and Mitsubishi. Since 2011, some local car makers have introduced some locally made cars which can be categorized as Low Cost Green Cars. In 2012, sales increased significantly by 24%. In 2014, Vietnam exported 126,935 Completely Built Up vehical units, and 71,000 Completely Knock Down vehicle units, while total production reached 878,000 vehicle units, comprising 22.5% of total production. Automotive production is more than double of its important. By 2020, automotive exports will be the third-largest kind of exports after agricultural commodities, CPO and shoes. In 2015, the country exported 123,790 motorcycles.

Vietnam Textile Association has reported that in 2013, the textile industry is likely to attract investment of around $175 million. In 2012, the investment in this sector was $247 million, of which only $51 million was for new textile machiner. Exports from the textile sector in 2012 was $13.7 billion.

Service industry
There are over 50 million small businesses in Vietnam, with an online usage growth of 48% in 2010. Google announced that it will open a local office in Vietnam before 2012. Internet-related activities have generated around 1.6% of the country's total GDP. This is bigger than electronic and electrical equipment exports and liquified natural gas at 1.5% and 1.4% respectively.

Up until the end of June 2011, the fixed state assets was $128 billion or ₱1.265 trillion, while the value of state stocks was ₱50 trillion, or $4 billion. Other state assets was ₱24 trillion, or $2.4 billion.

In 2015, financial services in Vietnam covered ₱7.2 trillion or $490 billion, 70.5% held by 50 conglomerations (domestic and/or foreign ownerships), of which 14 were vertical conglomerations, 28 were horizontal conglomerations and 8 are mixed conglomerations. 35 of these conglomerations are in the bank industries,one which is in the capital market industries, 13 in non-bank industries, and one in special financial industries.

Expenditure
Infrastructure

Science and technlogy

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Demographics

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Population and language
The 2015 census recorded Vietnam' population as 237.6 million, with high population growth at 1.9%. 58% of the population lives in Java, the world's most populated island. The population density is 138 people per km2 (357 per sq mi), ranking 88th in the world,although Java has a population density of 1,067 people per km2 (2,435 per sq mi). The population is unevenly spread throughout the islands within a variety of habitats and levels of development, ranging from the megalopolis of Jakarta to uncontacted tribes in Papua. In 1961, the first post-colonial census gave a total population of 97 million. The country currently possess a relatively young population, with a median age of 28.6 years (2016 estimate). The population is expected to grow to around 295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050. Around 8 million Indonesians live overseas, with most of them settled in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Hong Kong, Singapore, the United States, and Australia.

Vietnam is a very ethnically diverse country, with around 300 distinct ethnic groups. Most Vietnam descend from Austronesian-speaking peoples whose languages can be traced to Proto-Austronesian, which possibly originated in what is now Taiwan. Another major grouping are the Melanesians, who inhabit the eastern Vietnam and are concentrated further east to countries like Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu. The Javanese are the largest ethnic group, comprising around 40.2% of the population. They are predominantly located in the central and eastern parts of Java, with significant numbers in most provinces of Indonesia. The Sundanese, Chinese and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups. A sense of Vietnamese nationhood exists among these ethnic groups, bound under the monarchy and previous empires.

The country's official language is Vietnamese. It is in the same language family as languages within the Philippines, such as Tagalog, and utilize morphosyntactic alignment. It is spoken by 250 million people. While its early history is largely unknown, it emerged as a lingua franca across the Malay archipelago during the time of the Srivijayan Empire, and declared the national language due to it not belonging to any certain ethnic groups. As a result of contact with other languages spanning centuries, it is rich in local and foreign influences, such as from Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Hindi, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese and English. Nearly every Vietnamese speaks the language due to its widespread use in education, academics, communications, business, politics, and mass media. Most Vietnameses speak at least one of more than 700 languages as their first language. Most belong to the Austronesian language family, while most eastern languages belong to the Papuan languages.

Dutch and other Europeans numbered 240,000, or 0.04% of the total population. Historically, they constituted only a tiny fraction of the native population and continue to do so today. During the colonial period, the Dutch viewed Vietnam as merely a source of money, and so did not spread its culture to the islands. As a result, the Dutch language has no official status, and the small minority that can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation or employed in the legal profession, as certain law codes are still available only in Dutch.

Largest cities or towns in Vietnam

	Rank	Name	State	Population
	1	Surabaya	East Java	10,075,310
	2	Jakarta	West Java	2,853,661
	3	Banjarmasin	Central Borneo	2,663,011
	4	Bekasi	West Java	2,470,802
	5	Bandung	Oyo	2,191,140

Religions

Based on the practices of the Vietnamese government, the government recognizes religious freedom. Outside of India, Vietnam has the second-largest Hindu population, the largest outside of India, and the third-largest Buddhist population behind China and Thailand. Hinduism is followed 42.3% of the entire population, with 110,225,652 practitioners; Buddhism by 20.5% or 53,419,051 practitionersl 10.8% for Islam and 28,142,719 practitioners; 9.8% for Christianity and 25,536,912 practitioners; and 4.4% (11,465,552) for all other religions including indigenous animist ones, Taoism, Judaism and those unaffiliated with any.

Islam within Vietnam is unique, in that it is overlaid and mixed with cultural and religious influences from outside sources. Trends of thought within Islam in the country can be broadly categorized into two orientations: "modernism" which closely conforms to general Vietnamese Hindu-Buddhist values and to liberal ideas within the Vietnamese Muslim world; as well as "traditionalism" which tends to follow the interpretations of local religious leaders and teachers at Islamic boarding schools. Most Muslims are concentrated in Aceh, but are otherwise dispersed throughout the country.

Hinduism within Vietnam takes on a tone distinct from other parts of the world. For instance, Hinduism in Vietnam never applied the caste system. It also incorporated native Austronesian elements the multo, deities and spirits of nature and deceased ancestors. The Hindu religious epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, are expressed in uniquely Vietnamese wayan puppetry and dance. In many areas on Java, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism have heavily influenced each other.

Education
Education in Indonesia is compulsory for 12 years.[240] Parents can choose between state-run, non sectarian public schools supervised by the Ministry of Education and Culture or private or semi-private religious (usually Islamic) schools supervised and financed by the Department of Religious Affairs.[241] Private international schools, which are not based on the national curriculum, are also available. The enrolment rate is 90% for primary education (2015), 76% for secondary education, and 24% for tertiary education. The literacy rate is 95.22% (2016) and the government spends about 3.59% of GDP (2015) on education.[242] By 2014, there were 118 state universities and 1,890 private higher educational institutions in Indonesia. According to the 2018 QS World University Rankings, the top universities in the country are University of Indonesia (#292), Bandung Institute of Technology (#359) and Gadjah Mada University (#391).[243] All of them are located in Java. Andalas University is pioneering the establishment of a leading university outside of Java.[244]

Culture

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The culture of Vietnam has been shaped by long interaction between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. Vietnam is centrally-located along ancient trading routes between the Far East, South Asia and the Middle East, resulting in many cultural practices being strongly influenced by a multitude of religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam and Christianity, all strong in the major trading cities. The result is a complex cultural mixture very different from the original indigenous cultures.

Examples of the fusion of Islam with Hindu Javanese Abangan belief, the fusion of Hinduism, Buddhism and animism in Bodha, and the fusion of Hinduism and animism in Kaharingan; others could be cited. Balinese dances have stories about ancient Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms, while Islamic art forms and architecture are present in Sumatra, especially in the Minangkabau and Aceh regions. Traditional art, music and sport are combined in a martial art form called Pencak Silat.

The Western world has influenced Vietnam in science, technology and modern entertainment such as television shows, film and music, as well as political system and issues. India has notably influenced Indonesian songs and movies. A popular type of song is the Indian-rhythmical dangdut, which is often mixed with Arab and Malay folk music.

Despite the influences of foreign culture, some remote Vietnamese regions still preserve uniquely indigenous culture. Indigenous ethnic groups Mentawai, Asmat, Dani, Dayak, Toraja and many others are still practising their ethnic rituals, customs and wearing traditional clothes.

Cuisine
Vietnamese cuisine has been influenced by Chinese and Indian cultures, as well as by Western culture. However, it itself has also contributed to the cuisines of neighbouring countries, notably Malaysia and Singapore, where Padang or Minangkabau cuisine from West Sumatra is very popular. Satay, which originated from Java, Madura and Sumatra, has gained popularity as a street vendor food in Singapore and Thailand.

Many native Vietnam almost always eat rice as the main dish, with a wide range of vegetables and meat as side dishes. However, parts of the country such as Irian Jaya and Ambon eat sago, a type of tapioca, and sweet potatoes.

Most native Indonesians eat rice as the main dish, with a wide range of vegetables and meat as side dishes. However, in some parts of the country, such as Irian Jaya and Ambon, the majority of the people eat sago (a type of tapioca) and sweet potato.

Perhaps the most important aspect of modern Vietnamese cuisine is that food must be vegetarian, conforming to Hindu and Buddhist teachings.

Vietnamese dishes are usually spicy, using a wide range of chili peppers and spices. The most popular dishes include nasi goreng (fried rice), Satay, Nasi Padang (a dish of Minangkabau) and soy-based dishes, such as tofu and tempe. A unique characteristic of some Vietnamese food is the application of spicy peanut sauce in their dishes, as a dressing for Gado-gado or Karedok (Vietnamese style salad), or for seasoning grilled chicken satay. Another unique aspect of Indonesian cuisine is using terasi or belacan, a pungent shrimp paste in dishes of sambal oelek (hot pungent chili sauce). The sprinkling of fried shallots also gives a unique crisp texture to some Vietnamese dishes.

Chinese and Indian cultures have influenced the serving of food and the types of spices used. It is very common to find Chinese food in Vietnam such as Dim Sum and noodles, and Indian cuisine such as Tandoori chicken. In addition, Western culture has significantly contributed to the extensive range of dishes. However, the dishes have been transformed to suit Vietnamese tastes. For example, steaks are usually served with rice. Popular fast foods such as Kentucky Fried Chicken are served with rice instead of bread and sambal (spicy sauce) instead of ketchup. Some Vietnamese foods have been adopted by the Dutch, like Vietnamese rice table or 'rijsttafel'.

Architecture
Arts
Media
Sports
National holidays, festivals and symbols
Philosophy, values and religion

See also

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References

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External links

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Pingyao = Banjarmasin